"Transportation Research Panel" - An Interview with En-Ya Zhang from the MSEL Transportation Team

by Shoshana Harlem, Terra Linda High School

En-Ya Zhang is a Sophomore at Terra Linda High School. She is part of MSEL's Transportation Team. In order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Marin County, En-Ya and her team advocate for people to use public transportation.

1. What made you interested in learning about transportation?

When choosing our topics, all of us saw some improvements that could be made in the transportation system in our community, especially since some of us have ridden MarinTransit or SMART before. In the United States, transportation - cars, buses, trains, planes, trucks, and more - account to the majority of greenhouse gas emissions in the country ( about 29% .) Our overall goal was to try to influence these emissions and make an impact in our community. We wanted to learn about the history of public transit in Marin and use this information to boost public transportation ridership in our community. All of us have had our own experiences riding public transit, in Marin and outside Marin, and these experiences definitely made the topic of transportation more appealing to us. Our exposure to transit system gave us the ability to analyze the faults and disadvantages within agencies in Marin, and brainstorm our own solutions to them. 

2. What interesting facts have you found about transportation?

Overall, our group learned a multitude of interesting facts about transportation, whether it be local or global information. We learned that the Bay Area alone has 27 different transit agencies that do their best to hold up the transportation systems. At one point, there were plans to introduce a high speed rail into California, but these plans fell through due to a lack of sufficient funding and sponsors. MarinTransit, which runs the buses in Marin, has only two electric buses due to their high prices. Originally, Marin County was included in the plans for BART, however, these plans fell through due to a great deal of controversy. Not only did Marin feel like it lacked funding, but many were worried about the idea of setting the tracks under the Golden Gate Bridge, which they believed would ruin the historical landmark. When it comes to more global information, we learned that recently, Luxembourg made all public transit free to its citizens, and Norway's electric vehicle benefits have fueled high buyer rates within the country. 

3. What projects are you currently working on involving transportation research? 

The main project our group focussed on was a policy that we plan to introduce in this community. Throughout the project, we brainstormed a series of different ideas and finally settled on a couple of free fare days that would fall on April 22 (Earth Day), and Election Day. Our group has attended a couple of meetings to plan and finalize this policy, and we have already communicated with MarinTransit. The final task would be for us to present our policy proposal to the MarinTransit Board of Directors, and a meeting date was scheduled. Unfortunately, this presentation has been postponed due to the COVID-19 lockdown, and a new date has yet to be decided. However, we are confidant that we may be able to introduce out policy into the community and have it in action by November of 2020. 

4. How can people utilize transportation in a way that will protect the environment? 

Public transportation is inevitably the most environmentally-friendly transit choice, as it diminished the amount of greenhouse gas emissions per rider. This would include buses, trains, subways, planes, and a few other methods of transit. Agencies try to integrate each mode to make public transportation as efficient and helpful as possible, but its nearly impossible to satisfy the needs of every rider in an entire community. In addition to this, public transportation can sometimes be pricey, or it simply isn't the most reasonable choice to make. For those who are in such a situation and would like to make an impact on emissions, we would suggest carpooling, biking, or walking. Obviously, biking and walking would produce the fewest emissions, however they aren't always the optimal choice, and in that case, carpooling would still reduce the emissions per person, although no significantly.

5. How can we encourage people to walk and bike more to places?

We learned from Norway's electric vehicle policy that oftentimes, the most effective way to influence the public's decisions is to provide them with benefits. For many, walking and biking from Point A to Point B isn't worth the extra time of the extra effort. That is by far the biggest obstacle when it comes to promoting such habits and transportation methods, especially when it comes to commuters that have to travel miles everyday. Such people would benefit more from riding public transportation, as it fits better with their daily schedules and needs. However, in school zones, there is much to be done to increase the use of bikes and the number of walkers. Many schools already have special days set aside to promote these modes of transport, and encourage it by handing out prizes. However, increasing the sizes of the bike lanes could make it more prominent in our community, as many parents might be worried about the safety of their children. This would provide bikers with more space, and could increase the number of students that ride their bike to school instead of private vehicles. 

Whale Girl comes to Marin Science Seminar this Wed. 3/4!

Title: “CSI Humpbacks: Decoding Whale Scars“ with Allison Payne of San Francisco State’s Estuary and Ocean Science Center

Date: Wed. March 4th, 2020; 7:30 – 8:30 pm at Terra Linda HS in San Rafael, Room 207

See the teaser video by Marin Science Seminar intern Dhruv Pareek by clicking here.

Allison Payne is a graduate student researcher with the Hines Lab at San Francisco State’s Estuary and Ocean Science Center, where she is working on her M.S. in Marine and Estuarine Science. Her thesis is looking at the scars on humpback whales in the Gulf of the Farallones to assess their interactions with fisheries, small vessels, natural predators, and more. She is also a researcher with the Marine Mammal Center Cetacean Field Research team, where she studies harbor porpoises, humpback whales, gray whales, and bottlenose dolphins. She collects much of the data for these projects while working as a naturalist for San Francisco Whale Tours.

Allison received her undergraduate degree in Cognitive Science from UC Berkeley and has worked in labs around the world studying everything from squirrels to ancient whale fossils. 

"CSI Humpbacks: Decoding Whale Scars" - An Interview with Allison Payne of San Francisco State's Estuary and Ocean Science Center

by Shoshana Harlem, Terra Linda High School

Allison Payne is a graduate school researcher who works at the Hines Lab at San Francisco State's Estuary and Ocean Science Center. She also is a researcher for the Marine Mammal Center Cetacean Field Research Team and a naturalist for San Francisco Whale Tours. For her thesis, she is studying scarring on humpback whales and how it affects their interactions with other species.

1. What made you interested in studying humpbacks?

Humpback Whale

I grew up in Dana Point, California - a place that recently trademarked the phrase “Dolphin and Whale Watching Capital of the World.” Growing up so close to the ocean meant that there were tons of opportunities for me to interact with the ocean from a young age. I have a journal entry from when I was in kindergarten where I talk about seeing dolphins while walking at the harbor and how it made me want to be an “oshin ograffer”. 

As I got older, I started to focus on other things. I was particularly interested in brains, cognition, and consciousness. I started my undergraduate degree in Cognitive Science at UC Berkeley, but wasn’t sure exactly what I wanted to do until I took a class called Animal Cognition. 

I was engrossed by the research, theories, and stories presented to me in that class. I couldn’t stop thinking about how other animals might perceive the world and how the differences might manifest in their experiences, communications, and relationships. I got involved with Cal Squirrels to study the abundant fox squirrels on campus and realized that field research was definitely for me. I loved solving tactile problems, being outside, and hanging out with animals. 

While studying squirrels, I started thinking about what animals I’d like to study long term. Pondering this led me to think about all the mysteries of whale brains and behaviors. Cetaceans have been evolving separately from us for over 60 million years, but in many ways we are very similar. The fact that I could see parallels between us in everything from neuroanatomy to culture was thrilling. That’s when my love of whales came full circle and I decided to pursue whale research as a career. 

2. What can a person find out about a humpback whale from their scars?

Scars tell stories about where we’ve been and what has happened to us. For whales, that means we can see when they get in fights with each other, when they encounter predators, or when human activities like boating or fishing impact their lives. Just like at a crime scene, we can use scars as evidence and work our way backwards to find out what happens to whales when there are no humans around to see them. 

3. What are the best parts of your job? What are the hardest parts of your job?

The best part of studying whales is, of course, the field work. Being out on the water is hard and thrilling work. I love working on boats, collaborating with locals, and seeing amazing natural displays. 

In my work, I often interact with the public, especially when I guide whale watching tours. Education can sometimes be the hardest part! I remember at one point last year I was on the San Francisco Whale Tours vessel Kitty Kat, and we were watching several humpback whales just outside the Golden Gate Bridge. 

When we first saw the whales, they were several hundred yards west of us. I knew we had an incoming tide, a western wind, and lots of anchovies underneath us, so rather than approach the whales, I chose to have the captain put the boat in neutral and wait for the whales to come to us. 

This wasn’t a popular decision with some of the passengers, several of whom insisted that we move closer. I started to explain to them that whales should be treated just like any other wild animals and the best way to gain their trust is to be quiet and not make sudden movements. However, I was interrupted by the giant sneeze-like sound of a humpback whale spouting only feet from our boat! 

It was pretty satisfying to see the same passengers who had been pouting become excited and awed as they got faces full of whale snot. The humpback circled around our boat, eventually giving us a beautiful fluke dive only 10 yards away. Choosing to give the whales the opportunity to come to us gave us a beautiful, safe, and ethical encounter with these gentle giants. And it all happened with the iconic Golden Gate Bridge in the background - pretty special!

4. What advice would you give to people who want to study humpbacks?

Get involved in research projects as early as you can. Try out all kinds of research - from pipetting in the lab, to counting animals in the field, to writing computer programs to analyze data. It doesn’t matter if the lab closest to you studies otters and you love belugas - just start somewhere. Maybe you’ll discover a love for plankton or coral and end up on a completely different path than you thought!

Some of my most valuable and formative career experiences were the learning experiences I had in different labs I volunteered in during college. It helped me figure out what I like and make connections with professionals who still support and advise me today. 

5. What current projects are you working on?

I’m currently working on my Masters thesis with San Francisco State’s Estuary and Ocean Science Center. I’m studying humpback whales who become entangled in fishing gear off the Central Californian coast. I am looking at tons of photos of these whales to see if they have scars left from being caught in the gear.

Want to learn more about Alison Payne and humpback whales? Join us on Wednesday, March 4, 2020 at Terra Linda High School from 7:30PM-8:30PM in Room 207!

"Geoengineering and Terraforming: the manipulation of climate on Earth and other planets” - An Interview with Warren Wiscombe of NASA- Goddard Space Flight Center

"Geoengineering and Terraforming: the manipulation of  climate on Earth and other planets” - An Interview with Warren Wiscombe of NASA- Goddard Space Flight Center

En-Ya Zhang (MSS Intern, Terra Linda High School)

Warren Wiscombe worked at the NASA- Goddard Space Flight Center for thirty years, researching the interaction between the sun, clouds, and aerosols. He received a B.S. in Physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.) and a Ph.D. in Applied Maths from the California Institute of Technology (CalTech). This event, "Geoengineering and Terraforming: the manipulation of climate on Earth and other planets", took place on January 29, 2020, in Room 207, at Terra Linda High School. ( 320 Nova Albion Way)

1. Were you always interested in geoengineering and terraforming? Or were they topics that piqued your interest later on in life?

I started in climate in 1970.  For the first 10 years, we never discussed geoengineering because climate science was primitive and we were still hashing out the basics.  However, in the early 1980's, the work on Nuclear Winter (the famous TTAPS paper) caught everyone's attention, and that was a form of unintentional geoengineering.  It started us down the road of thinking about how humans could put aerosol in the stratosphere and alter the climate, even though the word geoengineering was not even defined yet.

The asteroid impact work of Alvarez et al. piggybacked on the Nuclear Winter work and even used the same models.  That work also caught the attention of all climate scientists at the time.

In spite of the attempt to rewrite history by young climate scientists, we were far from sure about global warming until the end of the 1980's.  Hansen was privately criticized by 90% of my colleagues for testifying to Congress in 1989 that "global warming is here", and in fact he was wrong in ascribing the US drought at that time to global warming.  So the climate field was obviously not rushing to counteract something they weren't sure was even real.

It was only as the 1990's wore on, and global temperatures contined their climb, that the idea of geoengineering gained any traction at all.  Toward the end of the 90's, Ken Caldeira raised the profile of ocean acidification, a consequence of CO2 rise that could not be counteracted except by removing CO2 from the atmosphere, which more or less began the CCS branch of geoengineering.

Even in the 2000-2010 period, there was a lot of internal conflict within the field about geoengineering.  I was an early advocate, and as Chief Scientist of a DOE climate program, I strongly urged DOE to start a geoengineering research program, but they were afraid of it and rebuffed my idea.  Paul Crutzen, then Phil Rasch and other early adopter, gave more credibility and respectability to geoengineering, but it was still an uphill battle against geoengineering deniers like Alan Robock, who staked out the moral high ground and claimed it was immoral to do geoengineering because there would be winners and losers and the losers would have no voice.

As to terraforming, it was a fringe subject until recently -- not disrespected, but hardly anyone in planetary science worked on it.  I followed the subject, but never worked on it.  Chris McKay of NASA Ames was its biggest student and spokesman on the research side.  Nobody would support implementation, because NASA had a "Planetary Protection Officer" whose sole job was to prevent any meddling with other planets.  NASA requires all spacecraft to be perfectly sterile, etc.  I have always supported terraforming because I strongly believe, based on my study of habitability, that we are likely the only intelligent species with technology for space travel in the entire galaxy.  Our species will die out if we remain on Earth -- that is 100% certain.  So our only shot at longevity is to go to other planets.  But our study of 1000s of exoplanets has revealed that few if any are suitable for human life.  So those exoplanets will need to be terraformed.  We need to start figuring out how to do that.  K.S. Robinson gave us some hints in his books Red Mars, Green Mars, but there is a lot more research to do.  Perhaps, for example, we need to prepare planets by sending appropriate bacteria 1000 years before we send humans.


2. Geoengineering is a rather controversial topic. Do you think that the outcome of the process would be worth the consequences?

I think humans have been doing geoengineering for 10,000 years or more, certainly since the start of agriculture, and even before that with widespread burning of forests and grasslands.  So to me the only question is, do you geoengineer purposely, or inadvertently?  I pick purposely.  Also, geoengineering is training wheels for terraforming, which I also favor.  Hard as it seems right now, geoengineering the Earth is a lot easier than terraforming other planets, and it is time for us to get started on that steep learning curve.

I don't buy the moral arguments against geoengineering.  Survival of humanity and civilization trumps fear of unintended consequences.


3. What kinds of geoengineering projects do you do at the NASA-Goddard Space Flight Center?

Goddard didn't do any work on geoengineering when I was there.  They were afraid of the topic.  Scientists as a group are actually quite timid.  Science managers are even more timid.  There is very little real risk-taking, and risk-takers are often harshly criticized.  I don't think the public quite realizes how conservative science is.


4. Do you think that terraforming Mars would be a possibility in the near future? Why or why not?

Not in the near future.  We don't even have an algorithm for doing it, a checklist if you will.  My own concern is that you don't just plop down humans on Mars and expect things to work out.  You have to prepare the soil and the atmosphere first.  If you study soil on Earth, you realize that it doesn't exist on Mars, because "soil" is full of microbes that make plants possible.  Mars has no such microbes.  If we are going to grow stuff on Mars, we need a better atmosphere and we need soil that works (the guy in The Martian grew potatoes using human poop, but they never mentioned whether other necessities, like nitrogen-fixing bacteria, would also be needed).  As to the atmosphere, you need a thicker atmosphere with more CO2, and you need some O2 to form an ozone layer to protect plants from UV radiation.  You need to move the plentiful water from under the surface into the atmosphere, where some of it will dissociate into H2 and O2.

Edgar Rice Burroughs described some of this in his Princess of Mars series of books in the 1800s.  The Martians were making their own atmosphere.


5. What do you think is the most effective form of geoengineering? Why does is have a more positive impact that others?

The Royal Society report on geoengineering (I showed the cover in my talk) has a scatterplot of the various geoengineering methods with affordability on one axis and effectiveness on the other.  Stratospheric aerosols wins hands down -- it is the cheapest and most effective.  Reforestation comes in 2nd -- just as affordable as aerosol, but not as effective (although it does draw CO2 out of the air, which aerosol does not, so actually I think it is a better all-around solution).  A 2019 paper estimated what level of reforestation would be required to draw down the CO2 over the next 50 years or so, and it was quite reasonable in terms of area required, and cost.  It was in all the news.  If you need to find it, let me know and I'll locate it.

Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS), of which reforestation is an example, lags way behind aerosol as a geoengineering technology.  There are some great ideas, but they have never been proven at any kind of reasonable scale.  I like the idea of injecting CO2 into rocks under the ocean (the video I showed) but it remains just an idea.  Years of work are needed to even do a demonstration at scale, much less begin to actually reduce CO2 in the air.

CCS is a better technique because it gets at the heart of the problem -- too much CO2 in the air -- and it deals with ocean acidification, which aerosol (or Solar Radiation Management) does not.  However, if we are to do anything in the next 30 yr, SRM is the only technology available.

6. What do you think is the most interesting component of terraforming?

How do we seed an exoplanet with microbes, and can the process be radically accelerated so that it succeeds in a timeframe relevant to humanity (like 1000 years as opposed to a million years)?


7. What do you think is the most difficult part of terraforming?


Preparing the atmosphere for human occupation.  We have some ideas, but study of the evolution of Earth's atmosphere has shown how hard it is to accomplish much on time scales below a million yr.   It took over a billion yr to bring the O2 up to modern levels, starting 2.4 billion yr ago, for example.  CO2 is also complex, since on Earth it participates in a complex carbon cycle involving rain, plankton, plate tectonics, burial of carbonate sediments at sea, plus volcanoes, all of which serve to regulate CO2 -- one or more of these factors are likely to be absent on any given exoplanet.

"Engineering Wetlands and Rivers for Climate Resiliency" - An Interview with Rachel Kamman of Kamman Hydrology and Engineering

"Engineering Wetlands and Rivers for Climate Resiliency" - An Interview with Rachel Kamman of Kamman Hydrology and Engineering

By En-Ya Zhang (MSS Intern, Terra Linda High School)

Rachel Kamman is a hydrologist whose specializes in hydraulic and hydrodynamic analysis. Her consulting practice, Kamman Hydrology and Engineering, is based in San Rafael, and focuses on the protection and restoration of wetlands and estuaries. Her talk, "Engineering Wetlands and Rivers for Climate Resiliency," was February 5, 2020, in Room 207, at Terra Linda High School. (320 Nova Albion Way)


1. What inspired you to start looking into rivers and wetlands and how they can be engineered to become more climate resilient?

The focus of my work is on river and wetland restoration, which requires planning and design for the future. Climate change became a part of our vision for the future.
Initially the goal was to provide protections for natural resources. Now we recognize that both our communities and our natural resources will need to adapt to survive in the changing world.     

2. What kind of projects does Kamman Hydrology and Engineering take on? Do you mainly focus on wetlands and rivers surrounding the Bay Area?

I no longer work through Kamman Hydrology & Engineering, I am now an independent consultant. 
My work continues to focus on large scale ecological restoration projects.
I work throughout the state, though most of my work is on coastal river, estuary and beach systems.   

3. What do you believe is the most difficult aspect of engineering bodies of water so that they will be able to adapt more easily to climate change?

The most difficult aspect of engineering for climate change is securing the space in the landscape needed for adaption.  
Humans and our communities have gotten accustomed to living where we choose on the lands, and engineering the conditions to support their needs.  We have drained, leveed and filled lands to accommodate housing.    
Landscapes, and their ecological communities, adapt to climate changes by moving spatially (up and down hill, and expanding and contracting laterally). 
For natural systems to adapt to climate change, communities must provide that space. This giving up of developed lands is the most difficult aspect of engineering for climate change.  The difficulty lies more in community planning than in engineering design.    

4. Does engineering these ecosystems have any negative effects on the species inhabiting them? If so, what measures can be taken in order to prevent these drawbacks?

Any human disturbance to lands can have adverse impacts on resident species.  To protect resident wildlife, and optimize design to provide a high level of ecological services, I always have biologists and ecologists working with me as an integrated part of the design team.   

In addition, we time our work to minimize impacts to breeding and use, we carefully clear wildlife from the area prior to work, monitor for wildlife during work and often restore and protect sites nearby in advance of our work to mitigate for the disturbance and loss of habitat during construction.  These mitigation measures are required by state and federal water, fish and wildlife protection laws.  Regulators, representatives from these agencies, advise on and review designs in an effort to maintain these protections.   

5. In general, what do you think is the most effective approach to engineering rivers and wetlands so that they have higher resistance to climate change?

I believe the most effective approach is to step back from the edges of these systems, and restore their capacity for natural adaption to climate change.  This means removing community infrastructure, and restoring floodplains along river banks, and low lying coastal shorelines to provide the space needed for landscape climate adaption.  This increases the resilience of both communities and natural systems to climate change.  Land is needed for climate adaption.  
This has a dual benefit which is also necessary for successful climate adaption.  Wetlands have a capacity for carbon storage comparable to rain forests.    

6. What do you think is currently the biggest threat to local reservoirs?

The biggest threats to local reservoirs in Marin County are groundwater withdrawals and fire.  
Environmental protection regulations require maintenance of minimum flows to sustain fish populations is our creeks.  The more private well owners withdraw water, the more water must be released from reservoirs to sustain minimum flows.  This reduces the volume of water available for public distribution.   Fire in watersheds supporting reservoirs is a threat because following a burn fine sediments are easily mobilized into the system which adversely impact water quality.   

Biologics

by Shoshana Harlem, Terra Linda High School

Biologics are large and complex molecules that help to prevent,
cure, and treat various diseases. 

     Biologics are large and complex molecules that help to prevent, cure, and treat various diseases such as cancer, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, autoimmune disorders, and cystic fibrosis. They are composed of sugars, proteins, and nucleic acids. Biologics are also composed of living things such as cells and tissues. Biologics are produced from human, animal, and microorganism natural resources and are also produced by biotechnology methods.

Biologics are produced from bio-
technology methods, one of those
methods being genomics, which
involves studying the heredity material
of a cell in an animal or plant. Other
biotechnology methods used are
molecular markers, cloning, and
genetic modification.

Biotechnology describes processes and techniques that happen at the molecular level. There are different types of biotechnology applications including genomics, molecular markers, cloning, and genetic modification. Genomics involves the study of genes. When people study genomics, they study the heredity material of a cell in an animal or plant. Genomics help scientists to find the position and function of an animal and plant gene on a strand of DNA. Molecular markers are pieces of gene that are easy to detect. Molecular markers are helpful because they can be used to make DNA fingerprints of plants and animals which can help people identify what plant or animal they are. Another type of biotechnology application is cloning, which is when genetically identical organisms are produced. Instead of genes being modified, genes are copied.  Then there is biotechnology application is  genetic modification which involves modifying the genetic material of an organism by introducing, moving, or adding specific genes. An example of genetic modification is when scientists take a gene from one plant or animal and put it in another plant or animal so that organism can have a desired characteristic.

There are many types of biologic drugs and one of those
drugs is vaccines. Vaccines are important because they help
an immune system produce antibodies which helps prevent diseases.
Other types of biologic drugs include antibodies and vaccines.

     There are many types of biologic drugs including antibodies, interleukins, and vaccines. When the body's immune system finds foreign substances, called antigens, it produces proteins called antibodies. Each antibody is unique because it helps fight off a specific type of antigen. Some examples of antibodies include microorganisms such as bacteria, parasites, fungi, and viruses. An autoimmune disorder happens when an antibody is produced when there is actually a healthy tissue but the immune system mistakenly believes that is a harmful substance. Interleukins are a type of cytokine (which are substances produced by the cells of the immune system that have an effect on other cells) that help to influence growth and activate during immune and inflammatory responses. The proteins in interleukins can cause many different reactions in cells and tissues. Vaccines helps an immune system produce antibodies and they are powerful because they help prevent diseases. When a person is vaccinated, they become immune to that disease.

The FDA has roles regarding biologics such as teaching
the public how to safely use biologics, inspecting products
before they are improved, and making sure that biological
products are safe. 

     The (U.S.) Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has responsibilities when it comes to biologics. They look at new biological products and determine whether they should be produced or not. The FDA also helps figure out ways to prevent infectious diseases from spreading. A third thing that the FDA does is demonstrates to the public how to use biological products safely and appropriately. They inspect plants that manufacture biologics before the product is approved. They make sure that biological products are safe.

Licensed biological manufacturers must follow laws

related to biologics, and report and fix problems with

biological products.

     In addition to the FDA, licensed biologics manufacturers also have responsibilities when it comes to biologics. They have to make sure that they follow laws and regulations that relate to their biologics' license, and identify changes that should be made in order to have better product quality. When there is a problem, it must be reported by the licensed biologics manufacturer to the FDA's Biological Product Deviation Reporting System. A problem must be reported and corrected during the established time frame. When there is a serious problem with a biological product, the licensed biologics manufacturers must stop creating that product.

     To learn more about biologics, come to the Marin Science Seminar at Terra Linda High School in room 207 from 7:30PM-8:30PM on Wednesday, February 26, 2020. Terry Hermiston, Ph.D. of Coagulant Therapeutics and GlAdiator Biosciences will be speaking. Join us and learn!

Sources:
https://www.fda.gov/about-fda/center-biologics-evaluation-and-research-cber/what-are-biologics-questions-and-answers
https://www.fda.gov/files/drugs/published/Biological-Product-Definitions.pdf
https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/fda-101-regulating-biological-products
https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/002223.htm
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK499840/
https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/vpd/vpd-vac-basics.html
https://hsci.harvard.edu/translation/what-are-drugs-3-biologics
https://www.usda.gov/topics/biotechnology
http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/innovation-and-research/biotechnology/what-is-biotechnology

Teaser vid for tonight's show (Wed. 2/5)

Here is the teaser for tonight's Marin Science Seminar at Terra Linda High School for tonight's presentation (Wed. Feb. 5, 2020)

"Engineering Rivers and Wetlands for Climate Resiliency"

with Rachel Kamman PE of Kamman Hydrology and Engineering


Compiled and edited by MSS intern Dhruv Pareek.

Watch here!  https://vimeo.com/389410073

Engineering Rivers and Wetlands for Climate Resiliency

by Shoshana Harlem, Terra Linda High School

Rivers are important because they supply
communities with water, food, and transportation.

     Rivers and wetlands are important. Rivers supply communities with water, food, and transportation.  They carry water from the land to the ocean. In the ocean, the seawater evaporates and that water vapor forms clouds. Then, the clouds carry the moisture and release it as precipitation. This is a process called the water cycle, and this water cycle helps make sure that Earth has a supply of freshwater. This freshwater is essential for all living things. Wetlands are also essential. Wetlands are areas where water covers soil. Wetlands help improve and protect water quality, provide habitats for fish and wildlife, store water to lessen floods, and make sure that the water flows during dry periods of time.

Wetlands are important because they improve and
protect water quality, provide habitats for fish and
wildlife, store water to lessen floods, and make sure that
water flows during dry periods of time.

     Climate change impacts wetlands and rivers. For instance, climate change causes a loss of carbon in the soil. It takes thousands of years for the carbon to develop in the soil and it can take 250 years for one inch of a peat of soil to develop. Wetlands that do not experience the effects of climate change store nearly two times as much soil as wetlands that experience climate change. Also, when climate change happens, the temperatures of the water become warmer and it changes the amount of precipitation which can also lead to soil loss. When the water warms, it contributes to sea level rise. When the sea level rises, it causes the coastal wetland plants to die. Climate change can also cause rivers and wetlands to flood or even dry out.

    When restoring rivers and wetlands, scientists have certain goals. One goal is to address ongoing causes of degradation. If scientists do not address the ongoing causes of degradation, restoration efforts are likely to fail. People need to know what a problem is in order to properly fix it. Another goal is to restore native species and avoid non-native species. Many nonnative species harm and kill native species in an ecosystem. A third goal to restoring rivers and wetlands is to preserve and protect aquatic resources. This is important because aquatic resources help preserve biodiversity.

Geomorphologists are scientists who study the origin of and
work to protect landforms and landscapes, such as mountains,
valleys, rivers, and wetlands.

     There are many approaches to protecting and restoring wetlands. One approaching is geomorphology. Geomorphologists are scientists who study the origins of and work to protect landforms and landscapes, such as mountains, valleys, rivers, and wetlands. Geomorphologists collect samples of organic materials (such as sediments) to see if these materials had any effect of how the land was shaped. They also look at computer models to determine any change in the landscape. Because of the introduction of the geographic information system, which is a system that helps analyze, manage, and present geographical data, this has helped improve the process of geomorphology.

   
      Another approach to protecting and restoring wetlands is hydraulic

Hydrologists measure the water quality in places
such as estuaries, streams, and rivers.

engineering. Hydrologists are people who study how water moves across and through the Earth's crust. Hydrologists work with public health officials to make sure that health standards are met. When there is climate resiliency, environmental engineers and hydrologists work together to come up with a solution. Hydrologists also measure the water quality in places such as estuaries, streams, and rivers. They also measure the health of fish, plants, and wildlife. Hydrologists use hydrologic and water quality mathematical models to plan and predict what will happen to the water quality, during situations such as climate change. They also analyze pH levels, turbidity, and oxygen levels in bodies of water.           

     To learn more about engineering rivers and wetlands for climate resiliency, come to the Marin Science Seminar at Terra Linda High School in room 207 from 7:30PM-8:30PM on Wednesday, February 5, 2020. Rachel Kamman of Kamman Hydrology and Engineering will be speaking. Join us and learn!

Sources:
https://www.environment.gov.au/water/wetlands/publications/wetlands-climate-change
https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/principles-wetland-restoration
https://www.epa.gov/wetlands
https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/climate-impacts/climate-impacts-coastal-areas_.html
https://www.epa.gov/arc-x/climate-adaptation-and-wetland-protection
https://ecology.wa.gov/Water-Shorelines/Wetlands/Tools-resources/Wetlands-climate-change
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/river/
https://www.epa.gov/wetlands/principles-wetland-restoration
https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/what-hydrology?qt-science_center_objects=0#Hydrologists
https://www.southampton.ac.uk/geography/undergraduate/careers/geomorphologist.page

Geoengineering and Terraforming

by Shoshana Harlem, Terra Linda High School

http://marinscienceseminar.com/geoengineering-and-terraforming-the-manipulation-of-climate-on-earth-and-other-planets/

There are different methods of geoengineering, such as
carbon geoengineering and solar geoengineering.

     Geoengineering is used to change the climate at a global level in order to slow down the effects of climate change. The purpose of geoengineering is to lower the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which will in turn reduce the effects of climate change. There are different techniques of geoengineering. One technique is the Stratospheric Aerosol Injunction (SAI) that would, in order to block the sun, sulphites and other particles are sprayed into the atmosphere. Another technique is to clear forests that are snow-covered. Trees would be cut down and this would increase the light reflected back into space. A third technique is ocean fertilization. The purpose of ocean fertilization is to increase the number of planktons in the ocean. This is done by dumping iron pellets into the ocean.

      There are two types of geoengineering: carbon geoengineering and solar geoengineering. Carbon geoengineering is when carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere. This is important because carbon dioxide build-up in the atmosphere is a cause of global warming. By removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, climate change may be less severe. Solar geoengineering is an attempt to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases by blocking solar radiation and increasing the reflectivity of clouds on the Earth's surface.

     Geoengineering is a controversial topic. Although geoengineering can help slow down the effects of climate change, it can also have negative effects on the environment. For instance, geoengineering can cause ocean acidification to intensify. Ocean acidification is not good because it can cause species that live in the ocean to become sick and die. Another negative effect of geoengineering is that it can cause ozone depletion. Geoengineering may also have a negative affect on plants. It reduces the amount of total sunlight that reaches the Earth's surface. Plants need sunlight to photosynthesize, and so without as much sunlight, they won't be able to photosynthesize as easily. Having less sunlight on the Earth's surface does not only affect plants; it affects humans too because there will be less sun for solar power.

     Unlike geoengineering, terraforming is when the temperature, atmosphere, surface topography, or ecology of a planet or moon is changed to be similar to the environment of Earth in order for Earth-like life to be able to use it as a habitat. For instance, when a planet is too cold, hot, and/or the atmosphere is unbreathable, people will attempt to terraform it so species can live on it. Different planets need different levels of effort to terraform them. For instance, habitable planets already have life so they are already terraformed. On the other hand, a biocompatible planet has the necessary physical parameters, such as energy and stability, that it could eventually hold an ecosystem, but it would require a lot of effort to be terraformed. Besides habitable planets and biocompatible planets, there are planets that can be easily terraformed.

The surface of Mars. People have a common goal to
terraform Mars, which is very difficult to do.

     A common goal that a lot of people have is to terraform Mars. Unfortunately, terraforming Mars is difficult. One reason is because in order for Mars to be terraformed, the atmospheric pressure on Mars would have to be increased. Currently, the atmospheric pressure on Mars is less than 1% that of Earth. Some people believe that the Martian polar ice caps, minerals, and soil could all provide carbon dioxide which would help thicken the atmosphere on Mars. But even doing this would only increase the pressure on Mars to about 7% of that on Earth, a lot less than what would be needed to be able to have enough atmospheric pressure to terraform Mars. Therefore, Mars does not have the right resources to terraform.

     To learn more about geoengineering and terraforming, come to the Marin Science Seminar at Terra Linda High School in room 207 on Wednesday, January 29. Warren Wiscombe Ph.D of NASA Goddard will be speaking. Join us and learn!

Sources:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3596048/
https://geoengineering.environment.harvard.edu/geoengineering
https://nicholas.duke.edu/news/assessing-pros-and-cons-geoengineering-fight-climate-change
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3393062/
http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/20Reasons.pdf
http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mclaughlin2/
https://www.astro.umd.edu/~miller/teaching/astr380f09/lecture27.pdf
https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/goddard/2018/mars-terraforming
http://www.geoengineeringmonitor.org/technologies/
https://climatepolicy.org/index.cfm/climatepolicy/the-basics/there-are-many-possible-policy-responses/geoengineering/
https://interestingengineering.com/terraforming-will-define-the-long-term-future-of-humanity