"Don’t Whack that Whale!: Evaluating Risk of Ship Strike to Humpback Whales" -- an interview with Bekah Lane

 Sabine Fuchs, Katherine Branson School

Vessel strike is a leading cause of death for large whales, and San Fransisco Bay is no exception. Beneath the complex and intricate surface traffic of the bay, from recreational boats to shipping tankers, these majestic creatures weave their way through the water. Due to the fatal nature of this boat traffic, it’s imperative to study the overlap between vessels and whales in San Francisco Bay. Bekah Lane, a Cetacean Field Research Specialist at the Marine Mammal Center in Sausalito, used vessel data from 2016 to 2019 in the Bay and compared it against whale sightings from that same period, forming a ship strike risk analysis for humpback whales to better inform boaters. Before this, Lane also created a theodolite tracking program for humpback and gray whales in San Francisco Bay, coordinating more than 40 volunteers. Lane received her B.S. in Zoology from Emporia State University and an M.S. in Marine and Estuary Sciences from San Francisco State University. This April, Lane presented Don’t Whack that Whale!: Evaluating Risk of Ship Strike to Humpback Whales in San Francisco Bay at Marin Science Seminar. 

Bekah Lane of the Marine Mammal Center

1. As someone raised in Wichita, Kansas, away from the ocean, what inspired you to work with whales? Was there a defining moment, or was it a lifelong dream? 

I have wanted to be a whale biologist for as long as I can remember, even before I ever saw the ocean. I remember watching documentaries on National Geographic and thinking: THAT'S the job I want! To a little girl from Kansas, whales and dolphins seemed like mythical creatures to me. Even though I see them almost daily in my work, I am still so amazed and inspired by them!

2. Have you faced any challenges in your career as a woman in STEM? 

I have absolutely faced challenges in my career as a woman in STEM. While there are currently a lot of women interested in marine science, it hasn't always been that way, and my female supervisors were among the only women in their programs when they were getting their advanced degrees. For me, the biggest struggle has been gaining technical skills such as small boat operations, and there are still aspects of the field, like tagging, that seem to be dominated by men. In the early parts of my career, I really struggled to get my male supervisors to teach me how to do things like trailer and drive boats, even though my male coworkers were given ample opportunities to practice these skills. I still get funny looks when myself and my all-female field crew pull up to the fuel dock!

A Humpback Whale, image by Todd Cravens

3. Collisions between boating vessels and whales seem preventable if only the whale could move away quickly. Are whales simply unable to hear the oncoming boat? If so, what is the biological explanation? 

This is a common question, and there are a variety of factors that make it difficult for whales to evade ships in the water. For one, these whales evolved over a very long period of time in the absence of ships this size, and thus are not adapted to respond to a "predator" of this kind - additionally, there isn't an opportunity for learning between generations, since strikes from large ships are almost always lethal. Another factor is that some of these vessels are so large that the part of the boat that makes the noise that could signal the whale should leave the area to avoid being struck can be up to THREE FOOTBALL FIELDS away from the part of the boat that strikes and kills the whale. Lastly, the ocean, and especially San Francisco Bay, is exceptionally loud due to the sheer amount of vessel traffic. Think about when you're in a huge, crowded room where everyone is talking... you may be able to hear people talking, but it can be hard to make out the specifics of a conversation unless you are very focused. When whales are in the Bay, they are focused on the challenging task of feeding themselves about 2 tons of fish and anchovy per day, so I imagine it must be hard to make out sounds from specific ships and evade them in a timely fashion. Unfortunately, it's not as simple as the whales hearing the vessel and getting out of the way quickly.

4. What role does boater education play in preventing whale collisions? 

Boater education and outreach are crucial when it comes to preventing collisions between recreational vessels and whales. Most people who go boating in San Francisco Bay aren't aware that there are gray whales and humpback whales using the Bay during different times of the year or of any of the laws around observing marine mammals from vessels. At The Marine Mammal Center, we are also working with shipping companies and other maritime stakeholders to find ways to lower the risk of ship strikes to whales in the Bay.

5. In what ways can we lower the risk of whales getting hit? 

Boat operators and captains can reduce the risk of vessel collisions with whales by slowing down and staying the mandatory 100 yards away from whales and other marine mammals while on the water. As consumers, we can also shop locally to reduce the amount of distance our goods have to travel to reach us, and thus reduce the amount of interaction between ships and wildlife.

Humpback Whales: an Illustration by Sabine Fuchs

 

Ink Drawing by Sabine Fuchs

Sabine Fuchs is an intern for Marin Science Seminar who took inspiration from Bekah Lane's presentation at MSS to create an illustration of the majestic creatures Lane studies. To learn more about Humpback whales in San Fransisco Bay and why they are at risk, take a look at Sabine Fuchs's interview with Bekah Lane. 

"The HiggsBoson: 10 Years On" -- An Interview with Miha Muškinja Ph.D. of Lawrence Berkeley Labs

By Sabine Fuchs, Katherine Branson School

One of the most complex discoveries in particle physics, the Higgs boson, recently celebrated its 10th anniversary last July. Miha Muškinja, who is originally from Slovenia, is a postdoctoral researcher in physics at Lawrence Berkeley Lab. Muškinja worked on the ATLAS experiment, which announced the discovery of the Higgs boson, at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN near Geneva, Switzerland. Recently, he moved to Berkeley, California, where he specializes in analyzing the properties of the Higgs boson, in addition to working on algorithms and infrastructure to process data by the LHC. In March of 2023, Muškinja presented The HiggsBoson: 10 Years On at Marin Science Seminar and explained what the Higgs boson is, its significance, and its discovery in 2012. 

Q1: How did you become interested in particle physics?

During elementary and high school, I had a strong fascination with mathematics, physics, and chemistry. It became evident early on that I would pursue studies in one of these fields. On July 4th, 2012, I watched the live stream of CERN's announcement regarding the discovery of the Higgs boson, which was delivered by Fabiola Gianotti, the spokesperson of the ATLAS experiment at that time and now the Director General of CERN. This event sparked my interest in particle physics and solidified my decision to study physics with the goal of becoming a scientist at CERN. Although it seemed like an impossible task at the time, my dream came true six years later when I began my Ph.D. in particle physics with the ATLAS experiment at CERN.

Q2: What advice would you give someone interested in pursuing a career in particle physics?

The theoretical framework of particle physics, known as the Standard Model, is built upon a complex mathematical framework called Relativistic Quantum Field Theory (QFT). This theory is among the most difficult you will encounter at any university, so it is crucial to study diligently. You will need to acquire a high level of understanding in both physics and mathematics to be comfortable with the Standard Model. Additionally, programming skills are highly important in particle physics, as in many other research fields today. I would recommend learning programming languages such as Python and C++. Lastly, seek out a university or college that has a particle physics group. During your undergraduate studies, try to engage in research projects related to particle physics. This will provide you with a glimpse into the life of a particle physicist and assist in determining if this career path is the right fit for you. Lastly, keep in mind that the field of particle physics is highly competitive. Only a tiny fraction of particle physics students will ultimately become professors at a university of research scientists at a laboratory such as CERN or LBNL. However, there are many other career paths that you can pursue with a degree in particle physics. The skills you acquire through particle physics research are highly transferable and sought after by employers.

Q3: How would you explain the Higgs Boson to someone with no prior knowledge?

Let's begin with the Higgs Field, which is responsible for imparting mass to certain elementary particles. The Higgs Boson is a particle associated with this field. At CERN's Large Hadron Collider, we create Higgs Bosons by colliding protons at very high energies, causing localized excitation of the Higgs Field. This excitation manifests as a particle, the Higgs Boson, which we can measure and study.

In the immediate aftermath of the Big Bang, when the Universe came into existence, there was no Higgs field (although technically it was present, its value was zero on average). All particles moved at the speed of light. As the Universe expanded and cooled down, the Higgs field suddenly acquired a non-zero value everywhere in the Universe in a process called Electroweak Symmetry Breaking. Some particles began interacting with this Higgs field, which slowed them down (e.g., electrons). The more they interacted, the slower they moved. This interaction is what we refer to as mass. Particles that do not interact with the Higgs field, like photons, continue to travel at the speed of light and have zero mass.

Q4: Are there any controversies surrounding the Higgs Boson? If so, what is your perspective on them?

One of the major mysteries surrounding the Higgs Boson is its mass. Despite being the second heaviest known elementary particle, it remains relatively light. Naively calculating the Higgs Boson's mass using the Standard Model would yield a value 16 orders of magnitude larger than the measured value. This conundrum is referred to as the Hierarchy Problem. Additionally, the small mass of the Higgs Boson leads to other particles being very light as well. Consequently, gravity appears incredibly weak compared to other fundamental forces. The electromagnetic force between a magnet and a paperclip is stronger than the gravitational force between the entire Earth and the paperclip. This significant disparity remains unexplained. However, it serves as a driving force that keeps us motivated and excited to continue studying the Higgs Boson. We are certain that there must be something beyond the Standard Model, which we can explore through experiments like the Large Hadron Collider at CERN.

The ATLAS experiment at CERN

Q5: What impact does expanding our knowledge of particle physics have on the scientific community and our daily lives?

Expanding our knowledge of particle physics has profound implications for both the scientific community and our daily lives. Here are some of the impacts.

• Fundamental understanding of the universe: Particle physics seeks to comprehend the fundamental building blocks of the universe and their interactions. This knowledge enhances our understanding of the origins and evolution of the universe, as well as the laws that govern it.

• Technological advancements: Particle physics research often leads to breakthroughs in technology. The development of new particle detectors, accelerators, and computational techniques for data analysis frequently have applications beyond particle physics. For example, medical imaging technologies like positron emission tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT) have their roots in particle physics research. Notably, the World Wide Web was invented at CERN to facilitate communication among particle physicists, showcasing the transformative impact of particle physics on technology.

• Computational and data science: Particle physics experiments generate vast amounts of data that necessitate sophisticated computational techniques for analysis. Addressing these challenges has propelled advancements in data science, machine learning, and high-performance computing, benefiting various fields.

• Inspiration and education for future generations: The pursuit of fundamental knowledge and the discovery of new particles or phenomena inspire interest in science and motivate young minds to pursue careers in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields. Many students involved in particle physics experiments ultimately venture into diverse fields such as medicine, finance, or data science. The skills acquired through particle physics research are highly transferable and sought after by employers.

Exploring the Mystery of Scorpion Fluorescence

By Sabine Fuchs, the Branson School

The natural world is full of unsolved mysteries. Jacob Gorneu and Kate Montana, arachnid researchers at the California Academy of Sciences, disclosed one of the more perplexing enigmas of their studies when speaking at Marin Science Seminar: the fluorescence of scorpions. Fluorescence is when something glows or radiates visible light under black light, which is a type of light that emits ultraviolet (UV) radiation; in the case of these scaly creatures, they turn a bright glowing blue. Yet, there is no conclusive explanation for this phenomenon, merely a myriad of theories exploring the causation, chemical background, and possible uses for this fluorescence.

 

Image from Discover Magazine

Attracting Prey 

Many scientists have wondered why scorpions fluoresce instead of camouflaging themselves. An earlier hypothesis for scorpions' fluorescence was that it is used to attract prey. A study by Dumas Gálvez, Carolina Nieto, and Paola Samaniego in Neotropical Biodiversity, Vol. 6, explored this idea. They compared the activity of crickets near fluorescent scorpions and non-fluorescent scorpions that were painted black. However, no differences between the florescent and non-florescent scorpions were observed, and this theory was eventually discarded. 

Warding Off Parasites 

Further, in the American Chemical Society’s Journal of Natural Products, a group of researchers reported having found evidence that scorpions’ fluorescence might ward off parasites. β-carboline and 7-hydroxy-4-methylcoumarin were the only previously identified components of fluorescence in scorpions’ exoskeletons. Masahiro Miyashita and his colleagues decided to conduct further research, wondering what other chemical components contributed to the fluorescence of the hard outer shell. Using chemical conditions unlike to previous experiments, they took molted shells from the scorpion Liocheles Australasia and isolated compounds. After purifying one that showed strong fluorescence, they discovered its structure was a phthalate ester that has anti-parasitic properties. While this same molecule has been found in other species of scorpions, it likely contributes weakly to the exoskeleton’s fluorescence. 

In a Marin Science Seminar interview conducted by Sabine Fuchs, Jacob Gorneau, a research assistant in the Entomology department at the Academy of Sciences in San Fransisco, was asked about his opinion on the myriad of theories for scorpion fluorescence. 

“I think the fluorescence might more likely be a tool for simply detecting light,” says Gorneau.  “There have been a few studies showing this, and this idea makes sense to me because it seems like a good way for a scorpion to detect the time of day by the amount of sunlight present, as well as being able to detect when it has found shelter, such as in a burrow.”

Detecting Light 

Currently, this is one of the most compelling explanations for scorpions' fluorescence. Scorpions are nocturnal creatures, and the light predators use to find them is that of the moon and stars, a component of which is ultraviolet light. UV light is also the same light that illuminates their mysteriously fluorescent bodies. Douglas Gaffin, a Biologist at the University of Oklahoma, proposed the hypothesis that scorpions’ exoskeletons function as an “alarm system” that alerts them when they are exposed to predators. “You eventually wonder, ‘How do they find that one blade of grass and stay under it?’” said Gaffin in an interview with WIRED. Gaffin noticed while collecting scorpions that Paruroctonus utahensis, a grassland species of scorpions, was able to find shelter even in complete darkness. In a study published in Animal Behavior, titled “Scorpion Fluorescence and Reaction to Light,” Gaffin and his colleagues attempted to see if the exoskeleton alone could detect light. Previous studies have shown that scorpions' medial and lateral eyes are most sensitive to green light and less so to UV. Further, it is known that scorpions are negatively phototactic, meaning they move away from light. From this information, Gaffin and his colleagues predicted that the Paruroctonus utahensis would respond maximally to green light and minimally to UV light. However, in this study, they observed that the scorpions responded with abrupt bouts of locomotory activity to both green light and UV light. Next, the researchers covered the scorpion’s eyes with foil and again exposed them to UV and green light. The scorpions with blocked eyes still moved away from UV light but moved much less under green light than those without covered eyes. Gaffin and his team proposed that the exoskeleton functions as a photon collector that transforms UV light into cyan-green light before relaying it to the nervous system. Another study conducted by Carl T. Kloock, Abraham Kubli, and Ricco Reynolds, titled Ultraviolet light detection: a function of scorpion fluorescence, that was published in the Journal of Arachnology, explored this same idea. By exposing scorpions to prolonged UV light, researchers reduced their fluorescence. Next, they created an arena half in shade and half not. Three different light settings were tested: infrared (IR) light only, IR ultraviolet light, and IR white light. Then, the activity of fluorescent and non-fluorescent scorpions was compared. Under the IR ultraviolet light, fluorescent scorpions stayed more often in the shaded region, whereas the reduced-fluorescent scorpions had increased activity in both regions. However, in the IR only and IR white light, activity between both types of scorpions was the same. The researchers interpreted this as possible evidence that fluorescence aids in scorpions' detection of light. 

Even with all of this research, the reason for scorpion fluorescence remains unclear. In this day and age, it is easy to think we have discovered all there is to know about the natural world. After all, we have bombs that can blow up cities, methods to reach other planets, and the capability to genetically engineer. Yet, the phenomenon of scorpion fluorescence makes it clear that there is still so much we have yet to know. 

Works Cited 

Author links open overlay panelDouglas D. Gaffin et al. “Scorpion Fluorescence and Reaction to Light.” Animal Behaviour, 19 Dec. 2011, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347211005069?via%3Dihub.

Dailymail.com, Stacy Liberatore For. “Brown Scorpion and Its Babies Glow Stunning Shades of Blue and Purple under UV after Light.” Daily Mail Online, 21 July 2021, www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-9811411/Brown-scorpion-babies-glow-stunning-shades-blue-purple-UV-light.html.

Full Article: Test of the Prey-Attraction Hypothesis for the Scorpion ..., www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23766808.2020.1844991. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.

Kloock, Carl T., et al. “Ultraviolet Light Detection: A Function of Scorpion Fluorescence.” BioOne Complete, bioone.org/journals/the-journal-of-arachnology/volume-38/issue-3/B09-111.1/Ultraviolet-light-detection-a-function-of-scorpion-fluorescence/10.1636/B09-111.1.short. Accessed 31 July 2023.

Mosher, Dave. “Glowing Scorpion Exoskeletons May Be Giant Eyes.” Wired, 30 Dec. 2011, www.wired.com/2011/12/scorpion-fluorescence/.

Scorpion Fluorescence and Reaction to Light | Request PDF - Researchgate, www.researchgate.net/publication/256654998_Scorpion_fluorescence_and_reaction_to_light. Accessed 1 Aug. 2023.

“Scorpions Glow in the Dark to Detect Moonlight.” New Scientist, 8 Dec. 2010, www.newscientist.com/article/mg20827903-700-scorpions-glow-in-the-dark-to-detect-moonlight/.

“Scorpions Make a Fluorescent Compound That Could Help Protect Them from Parasites.” American Chemical Society, www.acs.org/pressroom/presspacs/2020/acs-presspac-march-4-2020/scorpions-make-a-fluorescent-compound-that-could-help-protect-them-from-parasites.html. Accessed 31 July 2023. 

"Arachnophilia! Using Museums to Understand and Conserve Arachnids" - An Interview with Jacob Gorneau and Kate Montana

 By Sabine Fuchs, Katherine Branson School

Spiders and scorpions and arachnids, oh my! The study of these “creepy crawlies,” their evolution, habitat, and, for some, their mysterious bioluminescence, is explored by Jacob Gorneau and Kate Montana at the California Academy of Sciences. Gorneau, who received his bachelor’s in entomology from Cornell University and his master’s in Biology at San Fransisco State University, is a research assistant in the Entomology department at the Academy of Sciences. Montana, who received her undergraduate degree in biology and anthropology, is currently a graduate student researcher in the arachnology lab at the California Academy of Sciences. Gorneau and Montana have worked together using morphological and molecular data to revise the evolutionary history of the marronoid clade of spiders. Jacob and Kate presented Arachnophilia! Using Museums to Understand and Conserve Arachnids at Marin Science Seminar on February 8, 2023. Kate and Jacob were kind enough to answer some questions about their fascinating work surrounding arachnids.

Kate Montana in the field.

1. Jacob: You discussed how scorpions are found in a wide variety of climates. What traits do scorpions possess that make them so adaptable? Are there large differences between scorpions that live in a forest compared to those that live in the desert? 

Physically, scorpions are quite similar even though they are found in a wide range of habitats and climates — fossils of scorpions from nearly 400 million years ago look exactly as scorpions look today! The main exception is some cave-dwelling scorpions no longer have eyes, which is a common phenomenon in animals that exclusively live in caves. Scorpions do, however, have specific habitat preferences that we call microhabitats, and these are generally pretty consistent regardless of the climate and often involve darker spaces like burrows that are, in the case of deserts, generally slightly more humid than the surrounding landscape. This also helps them escape the extreme weather conditions that they can experience in deserts. Scorpions also have a strong exoskeleton that prevents them from losing too much water, and they are so efficient at this that they usually get enough water from their food and never need to drink water.

2. Kate: Since your work centers around fieldwork, what practices do you implement to ensure that the environment is not negatively affected by your studies? 

We take care to be as minimally invasive as possible. We do often collect spiders and scorpions that will be sacrificed for DNA extraction, but we only sample populations that are not in danger of being depleted. We try our best to only take the focal species that we need, though some bycatch does occur. When we do catch something that we did not intend to catch, we reach out to colleagues to find out if it might be useful for their research so as not to waste the specimen. We spread out our sampling geographically, which helps get a wide range of geographic representation as well as keep our sampling to a minimum at any particular site. 

3. Jacob: There is a lot of uncertainty and debate over why scorpions fluoresce under ultraviolet black light. As scientists and researchers, what explanation(s) are you most drawn to? 

Thoughts about why scorpions fluoresce range from allowing scorpions to navigate using the sky, to recognize members of the same species, or to detect light. While I personally find the idea that scorpions can use fluorescence under ultraviolet light to somehow navigate using the stars or moon really exciting, I think the fluorescence might more likely be a tool for simply detecting light. There have been a few studies showing this, and this idea makes sense to me because it seems like a good way for a scorpion to detect the time of day by the amount of sunlight present, as well as being able to detect when it has found shelter, such as in a burrow.

Jacob Gorneau in the field.

4. Kate: What does the process of revision of the evolutionary history of a species look like, and how does this revision impact the scientific world?

We start with a thorough search of the scientific literature to find out all we can about what is already understood about a particular species, genus, family, or other designation of a group of organisms. We use tools like Google Scholar or the library to find papers that contain this information. Then we can decide which samples we need in order to answer our question about how one particular species or genus is related to others in the spider tree of life. In addition to the samples that we are directly interested in, we need outgroups—taxa whose relationship we already know to our focal species in order to root the tree. Then we can collect both molecular data through DNA sequencing and morphological data through careful observation of the physical characteristics of the organisms. We take these data and run various computational analyses in order to produce a phylogeny that will visualize the evolutionary relationships between species. The scientific community can then use this tree of life to inform questions about behaviors, range of species, species interactions, and morphological characteristics. Since evolution is the process by which all organisms come to be the way they are, we need a solid understanding of the intricate evolutionary relationships between organisms in order to fully understand how they came to be.

5. Jacob: You explained that cattle grazing has impacted scorpion habitats since it compacts the earth, which prohibits scorpions from burrowing. In what other ways are humans negatively impacting scorpions or their habitats? 

In California, there are two other main threats to scorpions and their habitats: wildfires and land development. Firstly, while wildfires are an important and natural part of California’s ecosystem, the way that humans manage land today has resulted in wildfires larger in scale and intensity than they have ever been before. We don’t know if scorpions can survive these wildfires. Since scorpions are slow dispersers, meaning they move through the environment quite slowly and can’t run away from a fire, populations that exist where major wildfires have occurred might go extinct. Similar to how wildfires might block out groups of scorpions, developing land, either because of agriculture or building construction, can also remove important scorpion habitats. One way to combat this issue is contributing to wildlife corridors or making sure that as land is developed, there is enough connected natural land for organisms to move freely. People often think of wildlife corridors in terms of larger animals, but this connectivity of habitats is also useful for scorpions.